molecular

Zoology

...al mechanisms of animals and plants is studied in molecular biology , molecular genetics and developmental biology The ecology of animals is covered under behavioral ecolog...

X-ray crystallography

...t them, not the atomic nuclei . The material and molecular structure of a substance can often be inferred by ... See also diffractometer Fourier transform molecular model Patterson function reciprocal space space group phase problem Bragg's law ...

Virus

...es to complex molecules. Like DNA, viruses undergo molecular replication and they can often be crystallized ... processes Viruses are important to the study of molecular and cellular biology because they provide simple systems that can be used to manipulate and inves...

Virology

...ntrol measures Virus outbreaks See also molecular biology phage , the virus of bacteria / prokaryotes viral plaque Important publications in virology Virus classification...

Unsolved problems in biology

...nic properties of DNA? Does Junk DNA function as molecular garbage? Consciousness / Self . What is it? Why is it necessary for many animals (especially mammals ) to sleep ? Or dream , come to that? What are the inheritable characterisitics of intelligence ? What are the correlations between int...

Transmembrane receptor

... cycles. They are often classified based on their molecular structure , or because the structure is unknown in any detail for all but a few receptors, based on their hypothesized (and sometimes experimentally verified) membrane topology . The polypeptide chains of the simplest are predicted to cross the l...

Transformation

Transformation has two meanings in molecular biology : Transformation is the genetic alteration of a cell resulting from the introduction, uptake and expression of foreign DNA . Transformation is also the process by which normal cells are converted into cells that will continue to divid...

Trait

.... A visible trait is the final product of many molecular and biochemical processes. In most cases, infor...ure and function). This is the Central Dogma of molecular biology as stated by Francis Crick . This information flow may also be followed through the Cell...

Thylakoid

... channels as a single functional compartment. The molecular mechanism of ATP generation in chloroplasts is similar to that in mitochondria ....

Mitosis

...ey feature of a kinetochore is that it contains a molecular motor that uses energy from ATP molecules to move a chromatid along a microtubule, like a train on a train track. Two kinetochores form on each chromosome - one for each chromatid. When the spindle grows to sufficient length, the microtubules beg...

Taxonomy

... taxonomic classification has gained support from molecular systematics , a branch of bioinformatics that employs the method of gene sequencing to construct phylogenetic trees . See also systematics scientific classification ontology cladistics Integrated Taxonomic Information System ...

Systems biology

.... Much of systems biology is within the realm of molecular biology and physiology , but it demands tools from bioinformatics and data mining , molecular modelling , proteomics and the clinical sciences . ...

Splicing (genetics)

...ethods: Protein-mediated : spliceosomes , huge molecular structures composed of small nuclear ribonuclear proteins (snRNPs (pronounced "snurps")), splice the 3' end of the first exon, form the intron into a lariat , splice the 5' end of the next exon, and fuse the exon-exon junction; Self-splicing : sp...

Spliceosome

...ience of computer scientists working together with molecular biologists and bioinformaticians. External links and references The spliceosome: the most complex macromolecular machine in the cell?...

Species

... expanses of the phylogenetic tree ( see also: molecular phylogeny ). A species name can be: A noun in apposition with the genus: Panthera leo . The words agree in case but not necessarily in gender. An adjective, agreeing in case and gender with the genus: Allium sativum . A noun or adjectiv...

RNA

...ctive, retroviruses and ribozymes are remnants, or molecular fossils, left over from that RNA world. Assuming that DNA is better suited for storage of genetic information and proteins are better suited for the catalytic needs of cells, one would expect reduced use of RNA in cells, and greater use of DNA and pr...

Restriction fragment length polymorphism

In molecular biology , the term restriction fragment length polymorphism (or RFLP ) is used in two related contexts: as a characteristic of DNA molecules (arising from their differing nucleotide sequences) by which they may be distinguished, and as the lab...

Retrovirus

...s refers to this reversal of the Central dogma of molecular biology . Reverse transcriptase activity outside of retroviruses has been found in almost all eukaryotes, enabling the generation and insertion of new copies of retrotransposons into the host genome. Because reverse transcription is missing the us...

Restriction enzyme

...lementary (more below). Many of the procedures of molecular biology and genetic engineering rely on restric...nds with identical sequences. These rules enable molecular biologists to anticipate which fragments will join and how they will join--and to choose enzymes to ...

Replication

... ability to make a copy. (Mostly commonly meaning molecular replication). Self-replication is the act of a molecule (or any other pattern) making a copy of itself. DNA replication is the act of copying the genetic material of a cell ( DNA ) to a daughter cell is almost, but not quite, a form o...

Redox

...e into sugars and the oxidation of water into molecular oxygen . The reverse reaction, respiration , oxidises/oxidizes sugars to produce carbon dioxide and water. As intermediate steps, the reduced carbon compounds are used to reduce Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD + ), which then contributes t...

Proteomics

...vestigation of protein interactions on the atomic, molecular and cellular levels Protein modification . Almost all proteins are modified from their pure translated amino-acid sequence, so-called post-translational modification. Specialized methods have been developed to study phosporylation (phosphoproteomi...

Proteome

...n the second dimension, proteins are separated by molecular weight using SDS-PAGE . The gel is dyed with Coomassie Blue or silver to visualize the proteins. Spots on the gel are proteins that have migrated to specific locations. The mass spectrometer has augmented proteomics. Mass mapping identif...

Protein

...#957;η = first element ) is a complex, high molecular weight organic compound that consists of amino ... Proteins are generally large molecules, having molecular masses of up to 3,000,000 (the muscle protein titin has a single amino acid chain 27,000 subunits...

Promoter

... "disease" is often many different diseases at the molecular level, though the symptoms exhibited and the respo...tment as a result of differences in the underlying molecular origins is partially addressed by the discipline of pharmacogenomics . Asthma population ge...

Prion

...reat deal of our knowledge of how prions work at a molecular level comes from detailed biochemical analysis of yeast prion proteins. A typical yeast prion proteins contain a region ( protein domain ) with many repeats of the amino acids glutamine (Q) and asparagine (N); these Q/N-rich domains form the...

Primer

This article is about molecular biology for alternate uses, see primer (disambig... a DNA polymerase. Many laboratory techniques of molecular biology that involve DNA polymerases, such as DNA sequencing and polymerase chain reaction (PCR...

Population genetics

... the moment the non-Mendelian aspects revealed by molecular genetics , this is clearly a gargantuan task. Visualizing this transformation: (adapted from Lewontin 1974, p. 12). T 1 represents the genetic and epigenetic laws, the aspects of functional biology, or development , that transform a geno...

Plant physiology

...ts. It is closely related to biochemistry and molecular biology . External links Plant physiology online study aid Plant physiology scientific journal Bibliography Frank B. Salisbury, Cleon W. Ross Plant physiology Wadsworth, 1992. - ISBN 0534151620 undergraduate textbook in plant phy...

Photosynthesis

... Photosynthesis in algae and bacteria 3 At the molecular level 4 Discovery 5 Factors affecting phot...lorophylls , and do not produce oxygen. At the molecular level Photosynthesis produces more energy for certain wavelengths of light. In plants, there are ...

Phenotype

...ance patterns without any knowledge whatsoever of molecular biology . The interaction between genotype and phenotype has often been described using a simple equation: Phenotype = Genotype + Environment A phenotype is any detectable characteristic of an organism (i.e. structural, biochemical, physiolo...

Phage

...sing cholera . Phages play an important role in molecular biology as cloning vectors to insert DNA into bacteria. Phage therapy has been used since the 1940s in the former Soviet Union as an alternative to antibiotics for treating bacterial infections—because killing bacteria is what phages ...

Polymerase chain reaction

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a molecular biological technique for amplifying (creating multiple copies of) DNA without using a living organism , such as E. coli or yeast . PCR is commonly used in medical and biological research labs for a variety of tasks, such as the detection o...

Passive transport

...of moving biochemicals , and other atomic or molecular substances, across membranes . Unlike active transport , this process does not involve chemical energy .Passive transport is dependent on the permeability of the cell membrane, which, in turn, is dependent on the organization and characteristi...

Parasitology

... fields such as cell biology , bioinformatics , molecular biology , immunology , genetics and ecology . The parasitic mode of life is the most common on the planet, with representatives from all major taxa , from the simplest unicellular organisms to complex vertebrates . Every free-living speci...

Redox

...e into sugars and the oxidation of water into molecular oxygen . The reverse reaction, respiration , oxidises/oxidizes sugars to produce carbon dioxide and water. As intermediate steps, the reduced carbon compounds are used to reduce Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD + ), which then contributes t...

Oswald Avery

...s a physician , medical researcher and early molecular biologist . He was born in Halifax, Nova Scotia ...al , New York City . Avery was one of the first molecular biologists and was a pioneer in immunochemistry , but he is best known for his discovery in 1944...

Olfaction

... method for the calculation of odor character from molecular structure. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 216, 367-385. Stopfer, M, Jayaraman, V, Laurent, G (2003) Intensity versus Identity Coding in an Olfactory System, Neuron 39, 991-1004. Stopfer, M. and Laurent, G. (1999). Short-term memory in olfactory ne...

Nucleoside

...n the cell, producing nucleotides , which are the molecular building blocks of DNA and RNA . Nucleoside triphosphates are the energy rich end products of the majority of biochemical energy releasing pathways. See also Nucleobase Nucleotide DNA RNA Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)...

Neutral theory of molecular evolution

The neutral theory of molecular evolution (also, simply the neutral theory of ev...Thus, the neutral theory is the foundation of the molecular clock technique, which evolutionary molecular biologists use to measure how much time has passed s...

Neuroscience

...ield which involves many levels of study, from the molecular level through the cellular level (individual neur...iple, there is no distinction between cellular and molecular biology of the brain and of any other organ. However, there are so many differences between the ner...

Monoclonal antibody

...s has become an important tool in biochemistry , molecular biology and medicine . Contents showTocToggle("show","hide") 1 Production 2 Applications 2.1 Monoclonal antibodies for cancer treatment 2.2 Chimeric and humanized antibodies 2.3 FDA approved monoclonal antibodies ...

Molecular phylogeny

Molecular phylogeny is the use of a gene's molecular characteristics to classify an organism and to pla... generally have a high degree of agreement in the molecular structure of these substances, while the molecules of organisms distantly related usually show a ...

Molecular genetics

...udies the structure and function of genes at a molecular level. Molecular genetics employs the methods of genetics and molecular biology . It is so-called to differentiate it from other sub fields of genetics such as ecological...

Molecular evolution

...sible traits are a result of changes in the DNA, molecular evolution must be seen as part of general evolution . The boundary between molecular and other aspects of evolution is not clearly defined. One inequivalence is that molecular evolution...

Molecular biology

Molecular biology is the study of biology at a molecular level. The field overlaps with other areas of bi...d. Writing in Nature , W.T. Astbury described molecular biology as: "... not so much a technique as an approach, an approach from the viewpoint of the so-c...

Mitosis

...ey feature of a kinetochore is that it contains a molecular motor that uses energy from ATP molecules to move a chromatid along a microtubule, like a train on a train track. Two kinetochores form on each chromosome - one for each chromatid. When the spindle grows to sufficient length, the microtubules beg...

Meiosis

...nown as bivalents, shorten and thicken by means of molecular packaging as well as coiling. The bivalents are now very much visible. The homologous chromosomes then fall apart and parts appear to repel their counterparts and the structure appears as a pair of chromatids. Each chromosome becomes two chromatids....

Max Delbr

...r than genetics. He also set up the institute for molecular genetics at the University of Cologne . See also : Luria-Delbruck experiment...

Mathematical biology

...49506 L.A. Segel, Modeling dynamic phenomena in molecular and cellular biology . C.U.P., 1984. ISBN 052127477X F. Hoppensteadt, Mathematical theories of populations: demographics, genetics and epidemics . SIAM, Philadelphia, 1975 (reprinted 1993). ISBN 0898710170 S.I. Rubinow, Introduction to mathem...

Macromolecule

A macromolecule is a molecule of high relative molecular mass, the structure of which essentially comprises...ly or conceptually, from molecules of low relative molecular mass. [1] A macromolecule is a molecule composed of a very large number of atoms . But gener...

Long-term potentiation

...6234), 554-7. ^ Sweatt JD (1999) "Toward a molecular explanation for long-term potentiation.". Learn Mem 6 (5), 399-416. ^ Esteban JA (2003) "AMPA receptor trafficking: a road map for synaptic plasticity.". Mol Interv 3 (7), 375-85. ^ Otmakhova NA, Otmakhov N, Mortenson LH, Lis...

Life

...sm", including these: Living organisms contain molecular components such as: carbohydrates , lipids , nucleic acids , and proteins . Living organisms require both energy and matter in order to continue living. Living organisms are composed of at least one cell . Living organisms maintain hom...

Kary Mullis

...ase chain reaction (PCR), a central technique in molecular biology which allows the amplification of specified DNA sequences. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry and the Japan Prize for this work in 1993 . Mullis was born in North Carolina, and grew up in Columbia, South Carolina. He attende...

Isozyme

...nguishing isozymes 4 Isozymes and allozymes as molecular markers 5 References 6 External links ...aboratory technique. Isozymes and allozymes as molecular markers Population genetics is essentially a study of the causes and effects of genetic variatio...

Ion channel

... transmembrane helices. The determination of their molecular structure by Roderick MacKinnon using X-ray crystallography won a share of the 2003 Nobel Prize in Chemistry . Because of their small size and the difficulty of crystallizing integral membrane proteins for X-ray analysis, it is only very recent...

Insulin

...led primary structure , was determined by British molecular biologist Frederick Sanger . It was the first pro...insulin to be effective. In humans, insulin has a molecular weight of 5734. Insulin is structured as 2 polypeptide chains linked by 2 sulfur bridges (see fig...

Immunology

...cept developed into scientic theory. The study of molecular and cellular components that comprise the immune system, including their function and interaction, is the central science of immunology. The immune system has been divided into innate immune system , and acquired or adaptive immune system , the latte...

Immune system

...e responsible for sensing the "pathogen-associated molecular patterns" and/or providing the "danger signal" as speculated by Janeway and Matzinger, respectively. Physical barrier The first defense includes barriers to infection such as skin and mucus coating of the gut and airways, physically preventing th...

Hybridisation

... different species or varieties of organisms. In molecular biology hybridisation is the process of joining two complementary strands of DNA. In chemistry , hybridization is the mixing of atomic orbitals to form new orbitals suitable for bonding....