level

Systems biology

...is successively decomposed into subsystems until a level ofdescription has been reached in which the subsystems may be understood to anappropriate degree. This might require investigation down to the molecularlevel in the extreme case. ...

Species

...ally refer to organisms. It is the only taxonomic level which has empirical content, in the sense that ass...grouped populations have been split. Any taxonomic level (species, genus, family, etc.) can be synonymized or split, and at higher taxonomic levels, these re...

Robert Koch

... The importance of his findings raised Koch to the level of Louis Pasteur in bacteriological research. In 1883, Koch worked with a French research team in Alexandria , Egypt , studying cholera . Koch identified the vibrio bacterium that caused cholera, though he never managed to prove it in experi...

Red Queen

...car of Bray ) only showed adaptive benefit at the level of the species or group, not at the level of the gene . By contrast, a Red-Queen-type theory that organisms are running cyclic arms races ...

Promoter

...ers , boundary elements /insulators) to direct the level of transcription of a given gene. Promoter sequences Prokaryotic promoters In prokaryotes , the promoter consists of two short sequences at -10 and -35 position upstream of the gene, that is, prior to the gene in the direction of transc...

Prion

...of our knowledge of how prions work at a molecular level comes from detailed biochemical analysis of yeast prion proteins. A typical yeast prion proteins contain a region ( protein domain ) with many repeats of the amino acids glutamine (Q) and asparagine (N); these Q/N-rich domains form the core ...

Potential energy

...vity and h the height above a chosen reference level (typical units would be kilograms for m , metres/second 2 for g , and metres for h ). In relation to spacecraft and astronomy g is not constant and the formula becomes an integral . In the case of a sphere of uniform mass (such as ...

Photosynthesis

...hesis in algae and bacteria 3 At the molecular level 4 Discovery 5 Factors affecting photosynth... , and do not produce oxygen. At the molecular level Photosynthesis produces more energy for certain wavelengths of light. In plants, there are two p...

Light-dependent reaction

...a photosystem I complex, which boosts their energy level to a higher level using a second solar photon. The highly excited Arif Rashid electrons are transferred to the primary...

Phosphorylation

...phorylation . ATP is also synthesized by substrate level phosphorylation during glycolysis .ATP is synthesized at the expense of solar energy by photophosphorylation in the chloroplasts of plant cells. Phosphorylation of sugars is often the stage of their catabolism . It allows cells to accumulat...

Osmosis

...arium fish placed in water with an different salt level (than they are adapted to) will die quickly, and in the case of saltwater fish rather dramatically. In addition, the use of table salt to kill leeches and slugs depends on osmosis. Chemical potential When a solute is dissolved in a solvent, ...

Olfaction

...or presented to the animal. Processing beyond this level is not exactly known though some preliminary results are available. References Buck, Linda and Richard Axel. (1991). A Novel Multigene Family May Encode Odorant Receptors: A Molecular Basis for Odor Recognition. Cell 65:175-183. Turin, Luca. ...

Nutrition

... normal body temperature. This beneficial high fat level may be very harmful for people in other situations, eg a sedentary worker in an air-conditioned office. So the aim of good nutrition in terms of body maintenance, repair and functioning will be often relative to the choices and circumstances of the...

Neuroscience

... involves many levels of study, from the molecular level through the cellular level (individual neurons ), the level of relatively small assemblies of neurons like cortical columns, t...

Mitochondrion

...exact number of mitochondria depends on the cell's level of metabolic activity: more activity means more mitochondria. Mitochondria can occupy up to 25% of the cell's cytosol . Mitochondria are sometimes described as " cellular power plants ", because their primary function is to convert organic materi...

Mitochondrion

...exact number of mitochondria depends on the cell's level of metabolic activity: more activity means more mitochondria. Mitochondria can occupy up to 25% of the cell's cytosol . Mitochondria are sometimes described as " cellular power plants ", because their primary function is to convert organic materi...

Long-term potentiation

... Deadwyler SA, Dunwiddie T, Lynch G. "A critical level of protein synthesis is required for long-term potentiation." Synapse . 1987;1(1):90-5. PMID 3505366 Frey U, Morris RG. "Synaptic tagging and long-term potentiation." Nature . 1997 Feb 6;385(6616):533-6. PMID 9020359 Bennett MR. "The concep...

Life

...nted for by applying the definition of life on the level of entire species or of individual genes . (For example, see kin selection for information about one way by which non-reproducing individuals can still enhance the spread of their genes and the survival of their species.) Note also that the t...

Light-dependent reaction

...a photosystem I complex, which boosts their energy level to a higher level using a second solar photon. The highly excited Arif Rashid electrons are transferred to the primary...

Kidney

...cavity . They are approximately at the vertebral level T12 to L3, and the right kidney usually lies slightly lower than the left in order to accommodate the liver . The upper parts of the kidneys are partially protected by the eleventh and twelfth ribs , and each whole kidney is surrounded by two laye...

Insulin

...production 3 Actions on cellular and metabolic level 4 Regulatory action on blood glucose 5 Sig...e arteries . Actions on cellular and metabolic level The actions of insulin on the global human metabolism level include: cellular intake of certain ...

Hyperpolarization

...ell's membrane potential dips below its resting level . In physics , hyperpolarization is the selective polarization of nuclear spin in atoms far beyond normal thermal equilibrium....

Human Genome Project

... genome down to the nucleotide (or base pair ) level and to identify all the genes present in it. Contents showTocToggle("show","hide") 1 History 2 Goals 3 Benefits 4 References 5 External links History The $3 billion project was founded in 1990 by the United...

Homeostasis

...a population or an individual to stay at a certain level of stress, often generating artificial stresses if the "natural" level of stress is not enough. Examples Thermal regulation : The skeletal muscles can shiver to...

Photosynthesis

...hesis in algae and bacteria 3 At the molecular level 4 Discovery 5 Factors affecting photosynth... , and do not produce oxygen. At the molecular level Photosynthesis produces more energy for certain wavelengths of light. In plants, there are two p...

Hardy-Weinberg principle

...d from the observed values). The 5% significance level for 1 degree of freedom is 3.84, and since the χ 2 value is less than this, the null hypothesis that the population is in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium is not rejected. F -statistics In F -statistics , the measure F is the obser...

Gradient

...s.The gradient at a point is perpendicular to the level set goingthrough that point, that is, to the curve of constant height at that point. Formal definition The gradient is noted by: where ( nabla ) is the vector differential operator del , and φ is a scalar function. It is someti...

Glycomics

...This area of research has to deal with an inherent level of complexity not seen in other areas of applied biology. Whereas genes have four building blocks and proteins have 20, the saccharides have a multitude of building blocks. Advances in glycomics are anticipated to be driven by improvements in molecul...

Glycome

...ated as the genome, in magnitude of complexity and level of diversity". (Perkel 2002) There is a pivotal body in this field, called the Consortium for Functional Glycomics (CFG) funded by the (US) National Institute of General Medical Sciences .This body (which operates in a field called glycosciences...

Gene regulatory network

... as transcription factors , and outputs being the level of gene expression . The node itself can also be viewed as a function which can be obtained by combining basic functions upon the inputs (in the Boolean network described below these are boolean functions or gates computed using the basic AND OR and...

Fungus

...eplant disease . In general, humans have a high level of innate immunity to fungi and most of the infections they cause are mild and self-limiting. This resistance is due to: Fatty acid content of the skin . pH of the skin, mucosal surfaces and body fluids Epithelial turnover Normal ...

Evolutionary developmental biology

...arily reflected in similar diversity at the at the level of the genetic sequences controlling development...om? If the morphological novelty we observe at the level of the different clades is not always reflected in the genome, where does it come from? Novelty...

Eukaryote

...d metabolic processes as prokaryotes, their higher level of organizational complexity has permitted the development of truly multicellular organisms. Without eukaryotes, the world would lack mammals, birds, fish, invertebrates, mushrooms, plants, and complex single-celled organisms. Eukaryotes are general...

Warm-blooded

...p its core body temperature at a nearly constant level regardless of the temperature of the surrounding environment (that is, to maintain thermal homeostasis ). This can involve not only the ability to generate heat , but also the ability to cool down if necessary.Also known as endotherms , warm-blood...

Electrophysiology

... (voltage-clamp ) or current (current-clamp ) at a level the experimenter may specify. This control is established using feedback through an operational amplifier circuit. The control of the membrane potential using voltage-clamp is most obviously of value in the study of voltage-gated ion channels ,...

Escherichia coli

... the technology as an "indicator" of the pollution level of water, meaning the amount of human fecal matter in it. The main reasons for using E. coli are that there are a lot more coliforms in human feces than there are pathogens (such as Salmonella typhi , which causes typhoid ), and E. coli is...

Digestion

...to further decompose it chemically. As the acidic level changes in the stomach and later parts of the digestive tract, more enzymes are activated or deactivated to extract and process various nutrients. After being processed in the stomach, food is passed to the small intestine where it is further mi...

Diabetes mellitus

...nly in the liver not muscle tissue. Higher insulin level increase many anabolic ("building up") processes s...al distress, and eventually vomiting . The rising level of glucose increases the volume of urine produced by the kidneys (an osmolar diuresis ). The high...

Culture

...rican Indians. Related processes on an individual level are assimilation and transculturation , adoption of a different culture by an individual. Cultural studies Cultural studies developed in the late 20th century in part through the reintroduction of Marxist thought into sociology , and in p...

Anabolism

...sses, whether at the cellular , organ or organism level is as anabolic or catabolic . Anabolic processes tend toward "building up" organs and tissues. These processes produce growth and differentiation of cells and increase in body size, a process that involves synthesis of complex molecules. Examples...

Botany

... from the molecular , genetic and biochemical level through to organelles , cells , tissues , orga...hains , or what ecologists call the first trophic level . Understanding how plants produce the food we eat is therefore important to be able to feed the w...

Biologist

...research positions. Training on the undergraduate level usually is very general while later training involves a specialization in a specific area of biology . (U.S. Department of Labor) See also: List of biologists External links U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook Handbook...

Barbiturate

... very narrow. That is, in order to obtain the same level of intoxication, the tolerant abuser may raise his or her dose to a level that may result in coma or death. Although many individuals have taken barbiturates therapeuticall...

Biodiversity

...es ecosystem diversity - diversity at a higher level of organization, the ecosystem (richness in the ...changes, and genome dynamics that occur at the DNA level and generate evolution. For biologists , biodiversity is the diversity of populations of organis...

Biology

...biochemistry , and molecular genetics . At the level of the cell , it is studied in cell biology and...logy . Developmental biology studies life at the level of the development or ontogeny of an individual organism. Moving up the scale towards more than o...

Apoptosis

...3 gene , resulting in the increase of p53 protein level and enhancement of cancer cell-apoptosis. p53 is a tumor suppressor, and is considered as a negative-growth and anti-oncogenic factor. Work carried out by Takaoka and colleagues has contributed to clarify the role played by interferon in the treatm...

Antibiotic

...d and other organisms revealed a hitherto unknown level of chemical warfare being carried out against bacteria. New antibiotics were rapidly discovered and came into widespread use, and a new era of research into the possibility of similarly "magic" chemotherapeutic cures for other diseases eventually led...

Anabolism

...sses, whether at the cellular , organ or organism level is as anabolic or catabolic . Anabolic processes tend toward "building up" organs and tissues. These processes produce growth and differentiation of cells and increase in body size, a process that involves synthesis of complex molecules. Examples...