the twin without depression served as a matched control for his/her co-twin with depression. Additionally, it was possible to explore potential shared genetic influences underlying the association.

The results suggest that first, persistent chronic cigarette smoking predicts depressive symptoms. However, when adjusted for other factors associated with depression, the elevated risk of persistent smoking remained significant among men only.

"The result that chronic smoking may actually have a role in the etiology of depression, may be surprising, as nicotine as such in short term is assumed to have some positive effects on mood", says Dr. Tellervo Korhonen from the Department of Public Health at the University of Helsinki.

"We should look for explanation to our result from long term effects of cigarette smoking, from addiction mechanisms and from other substances than nicotine within tobacco smoke," Dr Korhonen added.

The research is published in the scientific journal Psychological Medicine.


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